Linking Words & Connectors

Level B2–C2 · joining ideas with cohesion

◎What you'll master

Join two equal clauses with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, or, yet, for) and a comma.
Open a dependent clause with a subordinating conjunction (because, although, while, if, unless…) and punctuate it correctly.
Link sentences with a transition adverb (however, therefore, moreover…) using a semicolon or a new sentence + comma.
Choose between although/though + clause and despite/in spite of + noun / -ing, and between because and because of.
Build emphasis with so + adjective + that and such + noun + that — and avoid the comma splice.

1Three families of connectors

Cohesion means ideas that flow. English joins ideas with three different tools, and each one has its own punctuation. Getting the punctuation right is half the grammar.

Type	Examples	Punctuation	Model sentence
Coordinating	and, but, so, or, yet, for	comma before the word (between two full clauses)	It was late, so we left.
Subordinating	because, although, while, if, when…	comma after the clause when it comes first; no comma when second	Although it was late, we stayed. / We stayed although it was late.
Transition adverb	however, therefore, moreover…	semicolon before + comma after, or a new sentence + comma	It was late; however, we stayed.

The rest of this lesson takes each family in turn.

2Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)

The seven coordinators — for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — join two equal parts. When they join two complete clauses, put a comma before the conjunction.

The exam was hard, but most students passed. · She studied all week, so she felt ready.

What each one means

Word	Relationship	Example
and	addition	He cooked, and she cleaned.
but / yet	contrast	It's small, yet comfortable.
so	result	It rained, so we stayed in.
for	reason (formal)	She left early, for she was tired.
or	alternative	Hurry, or you'll miss it.

Two clauses, not two words

You only need the comma when both sides are full clauses (subject + verb). No comma for a simple pair: bread and butter, tired but happy.

3Subordinating conjunctions

A subordinator opens a dependent clause — a clause that cannot stand alone. The main idea sits in the other clause. Common ones: because, since, as, although, though, even though, while, whereas, if, unless, so that, when, after, before.

Where the comma goes

If the dependent clause comes first, close it with a comma. If it comes second, you usually need no comma.

Because the roads were icy, the school closed. · The school closed because the roads were icy.

⚠ Watch out — a subordinate clause on its own is a fragment: Although the plan was risky. needs a main clause — Although the plan was risky, we approved it.

4Transition adverbs & the comma splice

Words like however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, in addition, for example, on the other hand, as a result, nevertheless connect the meaning of two sentences, but grammatically they are adverbs, not conjunctions. So they cannot glue two clauses with only a comma.

Two correct patterns

It was late; however, we finished the report. · It was late. However, we finished the report.

⚠ Watch out — Comma splice — a comma is too weak to join two clauses: It was late, however we finished. Use a semicolon or a full stop before the adverb, and a comma after it.

Position is flexible

The transition adverb can also sit inside the second sentence, between commas: It was late. We did, however, finish the report.

5Contrast: although vs despite

Both express contrast, but they are followed by different things. Although / though / even though take a clause (subject + verb). Despite / in spite of take a noun or an -ing form.

Connector	Followed by	Example
although / though / even though	a clause (subject + verb)	Although the traffic was heavy, we arrived on time.
despite / in spite of	a noun	Despite the heavy traffic, we arrived on time.
despite / in spite of	an -ing form	Despite leaving late, we arrived on time.

To keep a full clause after despite, add the fact that: despite the fact that the traffic was heavy.

⚠ Watch out — never double the contrast marker. Use one, not both: Although it was late, but we continued. → Although it was late, we continued. And it's despite of → despite (no "of").

6Reason & result: because / because of · so…that / such…that

Reason

Because takes a clause; because of takes a noun.

We stopped because the engine failed. · We stopped because of the engine failure.

⚠ Watch out — don't put a subject after because of: because of he was tired → because he was tired.

Result / degree

Use so + adjective/adverb + that, but such + (a) + noun + that.

The film was so boring that I left. · It was such a boring film that I left.

Quick test

If the next word is an adjective alone, use so. If it's a noun (often with a/an), use such: so cold · such a cold day.

Practice — 15 questions with instant feedback

0 / 15 correct

Question 1

It was raining, ______ we stayed inside.

Question 2

She was exhausted, ______ she kept working.

Question 3

(contrast + clause) it was expensive, I bought it.

Question 4

______ the rain, the match continued.

Question 5

He passed the exam ______ he studied hard.

Question 6

He passed the exam ______ his hard work.

Question 7

The lecture was (so / such) dull that half the class dozed off.

Question 8

It was ______ a dull lecture that half the class dozed off.

Question 9

I wanted to pass; ______, I studied every night.

Question 10

The plan was risky; ______, we decided to try it.

Question 11

We missed the last bus; (result phrase) we had to walk home.

Question 12

______ working all night, she still missed the deadline.

Question 13

______ she worked all night, she still missed the deadline.

Question 14

I much prefer tea, (contrast linker) my brother only drinks coffee.

Question 15

The proposal was clearly written; ______, it lacked a realistic budget, so the committee asked for a revision.

✎Fix the Error

Each sentence has one mistake in the underlined word. Type the correction and check.

1.Although it was late but we continued the hike.

2.Despite of the rain, the match went on.

3.He left early because of he was exhausted.

4.I was tired, however, I finished the essay.

5.It was such tired that he fell asleep at his desk.